Dear Esteemed Readers and Contributors,

Greetings!

We are delighted to announce the release of the third quarterly edition of ELT Choutari (July-September 2024), dedicated as a special issue focusing on “English Medium Instruction (EMI) Policies and Practices in Nepal.”

EMI policy represents a significant area of study in applied linguistics, both domestically and internationally. Its implementation spans beyond private and urban schools to include community schools in rural areas, sparking diverse perspectives on its creation and application. Many scholars are actively researching various aspects of EMI policy and practices in Nepal, prompting us to dedicate this special issue to exploring these themes.

This edition features an exclusive interview with four distinguished scholars—Associate Professor Dr. Bal Krishna Sharma, Professor Dr. Bal Mukunda Bhandari, Professor Dr. Tara Datta Bhatta, and Professor Dr. Binod Luitel—who discuss the multifaceted dimensions of EMI as a research topic, current research trends, and future directions for novice scholars in this field.

Additionally, the issue includes four scholarly papers by devoted researchers:

Deviram Acharya examines how the proliferation of EMI schools exacerbates inequality in learning access, quality, and educational relevance, often as a shield against criticism rather than a response to parental aspirations.

Nirmala Dhami explores issues students face, including cultural marginalization, inadequate language skills, and insufficient instructional resources. EMI tends to favour wealthier urban students, widening the rural-urban educational gap and jeopardizing linguistic diversity and cultural identities.

Dinesh Panthee critically reflects on how community schools, driven by parental and student demand for English learning, face constitutional challenges regarding fee imposition, thus compromising educational rights.

Dr. Tekmani Karki provides insights into the impacts of EMI in rural settings, highlighting the challenges and opportunities of its implementation in rural education systems, drawing from reflections on his PhD journey.

For your convenience, here are the hyperlinks to the articles:

1. Scholars’ Perspectives and Reflections on English Medium Instruction (EMI) Research in Nepal by Associate Professor Dr. Bal Krishna Sharma, Professor Dr. Bal Mukunda Bhandari, Professor Dr. Tara Datta Bhatta, and Professor Dr. Binod Luitel
2. EMI as Panacea of Education Reform by Deviram Acharya
3. Social Justice and Equity Issues in EMI policy and pedagogy by Nirmala Dhami
4. Implementation of English as a Medium Instruction at Local Level by Dinesh Panthee
5. Implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) Policy: Observation and Reflection by Dr. Tekmani Karki

Lastly, we extend heartfelt gratitude to our co-editor, Karuna Nepal, and all our editors and reviewers—Jeevan Karki, Ganesh Kumar Bastola, Mohan Singh Saud, Dr. Jnanu Raj Poudel, Sagar Poudel, Binod Duwadi, Puskar Chaudhary, Yadu Gnawali, and Dasharath Rai—for their dedicated efforts in bringing this issue to completion.

ELT Choutari is a platform for researchers, scholars, educators, and practitioners to share insights, practices, and narratives from classrooms and communities. We invite you to contribute to our upcoming anniversary issue (October-December 2024) by submitting your articles and blogs to 2elt.choutari@gmail.com.

If you find value in the interviews, articles, and reflective pieces, please share them within your circles and feel free to leave your comments below each piece.

Happy Reading! Thank you.

Nani Babu Ghimire, Lead Editor of the Issue

Karuna Nepal, Co-Editor of the Issue

Introduction

About two years ago, I visited a school located in eastern Terai. I reached the school at 10:15 am, and the students were engaged in the morning prayer. Two different groups of students were praying in two different places. I asked the reason for it. I was shocked when I heard the answer. The students who study in the English Medium (EM) pray in a different place from the students who study in the Nepali Medium (NM). Interestingly, EM students were asked questions about general knowledge during prayer time, but not for the Nepali. I visited the school for different purposes, so I focused on my purpose and collected some information. There were two different buildings, different gates, different teachers, different playgrounds, and different textbooks in the school for Nepali and EM students. I had limited time to discuss the issue of the medium of instruction (MOI). After this observation, I raised and wrote the issues regularly about how the public schools create social class and deprive the underprivileged group who cannot pay fees for English medium. Such practice by public schools limits equitable access to quality education and social justice.

During my professional journey, I have found many schools across the country practising somehow similar cases as mentioned above. I have talked to the teacher and headteacher regarding the different practices adopted by the school focusing on English medium.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) Taken as a Quality Indicator

It is impossible to make a common and single definition of quality education. However, the EM has been established as the quality indicator. This is established by the government, the private sector and some other global contexts. Without the infrastructure and readiness, many local governments direct the schools to implement English medium. Similarly, community schools observed private schools and copied the private components of education in public schools. Nowadays, many public schools are converting to private schools by using private school components in school like entrance examinations, English medium, textbooks published by private publishers, and collecting fees from parents and teachers by school for English medium. Those characteristics of the education adopted by community schools are making low-cost private schools or private schools under the government roof.

As I have collected information from more than 15 teachers, the fee varies from 100 to 1200 per month and varies at different grades. We and many other so-called educators (this is for me) are in dilemma that EM is not the quality indicator but why we promote or why we accept the low-cost private education in private schools.

The community schools that use the EM have their arguments, and many of them say it is a result of parental aspirations. The true point is not only the parents’ aspirations but they don’t want to offer education to low-income or disadvantaged groups of people. One of the teachers shared the history in this way:

‘About five years ago, we discussed in school and concluded we have the students from low socio-economic status. If we perform better, we need students of high socio-economic status. For that, we move to an and make the school private for the parents. Then, about 70 percent of students  enrolled in private schools.’

Over a long time, the weak performance of community schools has led to private school opening trends. Over the decades, the number of students enrolled in private schools has steadily increased. According to the data, about 30 per cent of students study in private schools in 2023 (Center for Education and Human Resource Development, 2024). The school that started English medium shared this is the parents’ interest, but the layman’s parents cannot differentiate the quality. They listen to English as a quality, so they are interested. Community schools provide the EMas with a quality indicator, and they understand it. We do not have such strong research and data to claim it, but it shows the quality from the parents’ socio-economic status and private school components, even the private teacher. A teacher’s and headteacher’s opinions presented below claim that EMis quality indicators.

Teacher: We don’t know justice, equity, and many other things; our school offers English and NM education. We did it to fulfil the parents’ interest. We are committed to quality education. If the parents can pay the money, their child will be in EM, and those who cannot do so can go to NM. Students in EM are selected from highly competitive entrance examinations. We faced the pressure at the time of enrollment, but we can’t consider it. We have received many awards for better performance in the grades 10 and 12 examinations.

Headteacher: Our school did very well in the present day when our school started EMI and the number of students increased day by day. Most of the students enrolled in our school are from private schools. We are creating a challenge for private schools using the English medium. We select the students from the entrance. There is no place for weak students. Parents need to spend time with their children. They need to come regularly to school, and we have a weekly and monthly examination system. Sometimes weak students should attend the additional tuition class.

Equitable Access and Justice

Many community school teachers believe that children from poor, marginalized and disadvantaged families are not ready to learn, and because of the lack of awareness of the parents, they are not able to perform better. The different stakeholders strongly advocate the message, but they forget the right of the children to access quality education. Many of the education stakeholders like headteachers, teachers, management committees even the policymakers, do not seem to pay attention to social justice issues and equitable access to education. EMI creates class differences within the school and society. To gain parental attraction, the community schools used the strategy of EM, and they created a social class (Study in EM and Study in NM ) in the school.

During the development of this manuscript, I collected data from different parts of the country, from Ilam to Dadeldhura. Most of the schools offer EM to attract private school students, and they collect the fees. Then, the parents become happy because they get the opportunity to provide private education in community schools, paying a small fee. Few schools offer EM without any additional cost, but they select the students from the entrance examination. Deprivation is found in many ways within the school. The role of schools in promoting social justice becomes adverse. The deprivation is highly established by the entrance examination for enrollment and the collection of tuition fees to offer EM education. To show better results, selecting the best students to take the entrance exam is very popular in EM schools (Ranabhat et al., 2018). It creates a social hierarchy and leads to inequality and deprivation.

Two schools in a single compound offer two types of education and develop the child in a discriminatory environment. Many schools practise different buildings, playgrounds, drinking water, laboratory, library, etc. The schools in West Terai bring students who study in English by school bus, and students who study in NM come to school on foot. As mentioned by Sah (2023), the EMI creates unequal education space in the school and social positioning in the classroom. The students in the same school do not play in the same group from different mediums.

Discrimination in terms of opportunity is not only the problem, but the psychological feelings of the parents and students are also important. The school and society recognize that EM is quality education, and the feelings of the students within the school are important. The students who study in EM feel like the upper class, and those who study in NM feel like the lower class. The students who are enrolled in EMare ‘entering the new middle class identity (Sah, 2023).

Promoting the English Medium

Local Palikas and politicians have been promoting EMI without providing additional resources, capacity assessment and the school readiness palikas direct to school to implement EM. It is surprising to mention, what is the factor and how the policymakers or politicians (local Palika representatives) are motivated by it. Schools are happy with the EM because it allows them to collect the fees. One school teacher who teaches in EM in the community school appointed by the school as a private source shared, ‘The government permanent teachers are taking rest, because schools started EM and there are no students in NM (Personal communication on June 26, 2024). Some local Palikas have declared that all community schools should use EMI, which is not possible in all the schools and is not a good idea.

The school headteacher argued that the government does not provide sufficient funds and that we need to collect them from parents. The reality is different. Offering the EM requires extra money. They need to manage different teachers and EM coordinators. The different levels of government don’t tend to pay attention to this issue, which is against equal access to education. The trend of using EMI increased steadily throughout the country. The government policy has not differentiated in the evaluation process and practice. School using EM shows better performance, competing with private schools components. Then, these schools have been rewarded making their identity as better schools. Thus, the other community schools learned directly that EM is a key education reform strategy. I think the EM has become the panacea of education reform. But in reality, it is promoting social injustice, thereby leading to a disempowering gap between haves and have-nots.

Public education has certainly served the poor and disadvantaged groups of people without any discrimination. In the name of quality education and showing the parents’ interest, the public schools are converting into private in disguise. To make society cohesive and inclusive, public schools have to welcome all students, and they tend to focus on students who need support. Local Palikas and the government policy and mechanism should be developed to address the issues and focus on the disadvantaged groups.

Conclusion

A growing number of schools offering EMI creates inequality and inequitable learning access, quality, and educational relevancy. Schools refer to the parental aspiration but it is a strategy to defend them from criticism. Schools do not have any other strategies to improve classroom teaching and learning. They apply private school components like selection in enrollment, collecting the fees, manage the private teachers in most of cases. I wonder if their existing teacher and resources cannot afford EM, why they established the strategy within the same community schools. Schools located in urban areas apply these strategies and the schools in rural learn them. The local governments are not able to focus on holistic reform and they also promote it. The serious matter is that schools and teachers are not ready to accept the criticism and they argue that they do fair but neglect the disadvantaged groups of people and children.

References

Center for Education and Human Resource Development. (2024). Flash Report I 2023. Sanothimi.

Ranabhat, M. B., Chiluwal, S. B., & Thompson, R. (2018). The spread of English as a MOI  in Nepal’s community schools. In D. Hayes (Ed.), English language teaching in Nepal: research, reflection and practice (pp. 81-106). British Council.

Sah, P.K. (2023). Emotion and imagination in English-medium instruction programs: Illuminating its dark side through Nepali students’ narratives. Linguistics and Education, 75, XX. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2023.10115

Author Bio: Mr. Devi Ram Acharya is a research scholar studying at Kathmandu University, School of Education. He has more than 15 years of working experience in education particularly student learning assessment at the national and classroom level. Currently, he is researching classroom assessment practices in Nepali school education. His area of interest is student learning, assessment, education quality, school reform, and transformation.

Introduction

The Medium of Instruction (MOI) in schools affects students’ learning outcomes, comprehension, and overall educational experience. When students are fluent in the MOI, it enhances academic achievement and preserves linguistic and cultural heritage. Conversely, using a global language like English can prepare students for international commerce and communication. However, choosing a specific MOI can affect educational equity, especially for underprivileged students who may lack exposure to the language. Challenges include difficulties with complex concepts due to limited proficiency, inadequate teaching materials, extensive training needs for effective EMI (English as a medium of instruction), increased anxiety and stress, lack of community and parental support, and cultural disconnects. Given its impact on learning, cultural preservation, and socioeconomic mobility, MOI is crucial. Although Nepal’s constitution allows schools to teach in the learners’ mother tongues up to the secondary level, the shift towards EMI is accelerating. Against this backdrop, this paper explores the social injustice and equity issues stemming from the EMI policy in government-aided schools.

EMI and Social Justice

The EMI policy requires that academic courses be taught in schools primarily in English. This strategy seeks to increase educational quality and better equip students for global possibilities by raising their English proficiency. Nepal is a linguistically and culturally diverse country. Major adjustments to curriculum, teacher preparation, and instructional strategies are required for the transition to EMI. “Universities have encouraged and maintained structural inequality by using foreign languages as a medium of instruction with the goal of internationalization, globalization, and improved employment opportunities” (Alhamami, 2023, p.1).  It means universities often adopt foreign languages, such as English, as the medium of instruction to align with goals of internationalization, globalization, and enhancing employment opportunities. While these objectives are beneficial in many ways, this practice can also perpetuate structural inequality. One significant aspect is access to education. Students from poorer backgrounds might not have the resources to learn a foreign language proficiently, creating a barrier to accessing higher education (Macaro et al., 2018). Even when students from less privileged backgrounds gain admission, their lower proficiency in the MOI can impede their academic performance and engagement.

Another issue is cultural marginalization. Emphasizing foreign languages can lead to the devaluation and neglect of local languages and cultures, causing a cultural shift and loss of heritage (Phyak, 2021). Students might feel alienated from their own culture and history if the curriculum and classroom interactions are dominated by a foreign language and associated cultural norms. Adopting EMI policies could worsen inequality in education and marginalize regional languages and cultures, which can result in social injustice. Students from underprivileged or rural backgrounds frequently lack the tools and assistance required to thrive in English-medium classrooms, which exacerbates the divide between them and their richer or urban equivalents (Singh, 2024). For these students, this may lead to poorer academic achievement, less self-esteem, and fewer opportunities in the future. Furthermore, giving English preference over regional languages might threaten cultural legacies and identities, which will reduce linguistic variety. Students may be further disadvantaged by teachers who lack the necessary training to teach English. Phyak and Sah (2022) contend that to rectify these injustices, EMI policies must be inclusive, offering ample support for every student while acknowledging the value of the local languages and cultures. Inclusivity in EMI policies involves ensuring that all students, regardless of their English proficiency levels, have access to the necessary resources and support to succeed. This includes specialized language training, additional instructional materials, and tailored teaching methods that accommodate diverse learning needs.

EMI and Equity Issue

Nepal’s EMI policies draw attention to equitable issues. Urban schools often possess superior resources for teaching English, which disadvantages children from rural and marginalised areas (Sah & Fang, 2023). Disparities are exacerbated by differences in teacher preparation and educators’ low English proficiency. Diversity in language and culture may potentially deteriorate, which would impact students’ identities and academic performance (Jinghui, 2023). To address these problems, rules that strike a balance between maintaining cultural traditions and promoting English proficiency must be implemented, as well as targeted help for schools that are underfunded. EMI policies can exacerbate educational inequalities by favouring students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and urban areas with better access to English education, thereby widening the rural-urban divide. Sah and Li (2018) argue that the application of EMI policies may lead to inequalities in educational access and quality between different socioeconomic levels, urban and rural areas, and government and private schools.

The dominance of English may lead to the marginalization of local languages and cultures, fostering cultural imperialism (Phillipson, 2006). Educators should study into these differences to offer strategies for creating a more equitable and inclusive learning environment. Furthermore, many teachers are not sufficiently trained to instruct in English, which could lead to worse-than-ideal learning outcomes, particularly for pupils who are not native English speakers and find it difficult to process new information. Providing equitable access to high-quality education and opportunities for personal and professional development for all students, regardless of their socioeconomic background, is fundamental to EMI’s social justice mission. Sah and Fang (2023) also assert that ensuring all students, regardless of their socioeconomic background, have equitable access to high-quality education and opportunities for personal and professional growth is a key component of EMI’s social justice mission. Enacting EMI policies can aid in closing educational inequalities by giving pupils the language proficiency required to succeed in an increasingly globalised society (Sah & Li, 2018).

As a result, they may be able to advance their careers and engage in global dialogue. On the other hand, EMI may produce inequities that need to be addressed to achieve real social justice, such as the marginalization of regional languages and cultures and differences in the distribution of resources between urban and rural schools (Milligan, 2022). Implementing comprehensive teacher training, equitable resource distribution, and policies that support multilingualism can mitigate the challenges associated with EMI in Nepal (Phyak & Sah, 2022). In a similar vein, Solomone (2015) also contends that EMI can be a powerful tool for advancing social justice and equitable education by striking a balance between the advantages of English proficiency and the necessity of maintaining language and cultural variety.

Employment inequality is also a concern. Jobs that require proficiency in English further disadvantage those who do not have access to quality language education (Sah & Li, 2018).  Moreover, the focus on global employment opportunities can undermine local job markets and economies, affecting students who wish to work within their communities. The quality of education can suffer as well. Not all instructors might be equally proficient in EMI which can affect the quality of education delivered. Additionally, students may struggle to fully grasp complex concepts if they are not taught in their first language, leading to gaps in understanding and academic achievement. Social stratification is exacerbated by the use of EMI in schools (Parajuli, 2022). Proficiency in the English language often becomes a marker of social status, creating an elite class that has better access to education and employment opportunities. There can also be implicit or explicit discrimination against those who are less proficient in the foreign language, affecting their academic and professional growth.

Negotiating Global and Local Language Policy

To balance global and local needs, schools can promote bilingual education to help balance the need for internationalization with the preservation of local languages and cultures. Providing additional support for students struggling with EMI can help mitigate some of the inequalities. Furthermore, governments can develop inclusive policies that recognize and address the structural inequalities arising from the use of EMI (Phyak & Sah, 2022). By considering these factors, schools can work towards creating a more equitable educational environment that leverages the benefits of internationalization while minimizing structural inequalities.

Moreover, providing sufficient support means not only focusing on language acquisition but also addressing other academic and emotional needs of students. This could involve training teachers to be sensitive to the challenges faced by non-native English speakers and implementing support systems such as tutoring programs, counselling services, and peer mentoring (Nguyen, 2024). Finally, respecting local languages and cultures is essential in maintaining students’ cultural identity and motivation. This can be achieved by incorporating bilingual education models, promoting the use of mother tongues in early education, and integrating cultural content into the curriculum. By doing so, students can develop a strong foundation in their native language while gradually acquiring proficiency in English, resulting in a more balanced and effective learning experience.

While curriculum development and teacher training are crucial for effective EMI, these resources are often underfunded and inadequate for meeting the diverse needs of students. The neoliberal objective of EMI is to boost global competitiveness by ensuring students gain proficiency in English, which is seen as vital for participating in the global economy and accessing international opportunities (Tupas, 2018). However, this focus on neoliberal goals and economic constraints can overshadow issues of social justice and educational equity. To ensure that EMI fosters global opportunities without reinforcing social inequities, it is essential to advocate for bilingual education policies, involve communities in policymaking, and implement equity-focused funding to support disadvantaged students and schools. Researchers should aim to improve policy quality by exploring the motivations, challenges, and impacts of EMI policies. A thorough understanding of EMI’s effectiveness will help create policies that balance the demands of global English proficiency with the preservation of regional languages and cultures.

Conclusion

To conclude, EMI can improve employment prospects and worldwide communication, but it also frequently makes educational disparities worse, especially for poor children in Nepal. The students deal with issues including marginalization due to their culture, poor language skills, and inadequate instructional tools. EMI frequently benefits wealthy and urban students, widening the gap between rural and urban areas and endangering language variety and cultural identities. Furthermore, a lot of teachers are not properly trained to teach English, which results in less-than-ideal learning outcomes. Specialized language instruction and individualized teaching strategies are only two of the inclusive policies that are required to solve these problems and help all students. Encouraging bilingual education strikes a compromise between maintaining regional languages and customs and fostering global English competence. Ensuring equitable resource distribution, comprehensive teacher training, and community involvement in policymaking are crucial steps towards creating an inclusive educational environment. By recognizing and addressing the challenges of EMI, we can foster an education system that values both global competitiveness and cultural heritage, providing equal opportunities for all students regardless of their socioeconomic background.

References

Alhamami, M. (2023). Inequity, inequality, and language rights in English as a medium of instruction programs. Evaluation and Program Planning, 99, 102297.

Jinghui, S. (2023). Lost in the EMI trend: language-related issues emerging from EMI practice. SAGE Open, 13(3), 21582440231181494.

Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018). A systematic review of English medium instruction in higher education. Language teaching, 51(1), 36-76.

Milligan, L. O. (2022). Towards a social and epistemic justice approach for exploring the injustices of English as a Medium of Instruction in basic education. Educational Review, 74(5), 927-941.

Nguyen, T. M. A. (2024). Effectiveness and equity in English-medium instruction: A comparative longitudinal study in a Vietnamese university (Doctoral dissertation, The Open University).

Phillipson, R. (2006). Language policy and linguistic imperialism. An introduction to language policy: Theory and method, 346-361.

Phyak, P. (2021). Subverting the erasure: Decolonial efforts, indigenous language education and language policy in Nepal. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 20(5), 325-339.

Phyak, P., & Sah, P. K. (2022). Epistemic injustice and neoliberal imaginations in English as a medium of instruction (EMI) policy. Applied Linguistics Review.

Sah, P. K., & Fang, F. (Eds.). (2023). Policies, politics, and ideologies of English-medium instruction in Asian universities: Unsettling critical edges. Taylor & Francis.

Sah, P. K., & Li, G. (2018). English medium instruction (EMI) as linguistic capital in Nepal: Promises and realities. International Multilingual Research Journal, 12(2), 109-123.

Salomone, R. (2015). The rise of global English: Challenges for English-medium instruction and language rights. Language Problems and Language Planning, 39(3), 245-268.

Singh, R. B. (2024). “Challenges and Coping Strategies of Teaching English in an Under-Resourced Context: A Narrative Inquiry”. APPROVED B (Doctoral dissertation, Kathmandu University School of Education).).

Tupas, R. (2018). Market English as medium of instruction: Education in neoliberal times. In English medium instruction programmes (pp. 104-115). Routledge.

Author Bio: Nirmala Dhami is an Assistant Professor at Far Western University and a Ph.D. scholar. Her research interests include English Language Teaching (ELT), English Medium Instruction (EMI) policy and pedagogy, linguistic hegemony, and globalization. She is also focused on the professional development of teachers and research in policy and planning to enhance educational practices and outcomes.

Abstract

The use of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) has become a pressing issue in education. The global expansion of EMI has impacted the Nepalese education system. This study aimed to explore the motives behind EMI in community schools at the local level in Nepal. Conducting ethnographic research for six months in the municipality of Rupandehi, I collected data through in-depth interviews and informal conversations with four local stakeholders. The findings revealed that community schools are compelled to adopt EMI due to parents’ preferences and students’ eagerness to learn English. Consequently, student enrollment has significantly increased, leading schools to charge fees, which appears to contravene constitutional provisions and citizens’ basic rights outlined in Nepal’s 2015 constitution. Local governments need to balance EMI and preserve community linguistic and cultural diversity to ensure inclusive and quality education for all students.

Background

The use of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) is a significant issue in education. It is believed that EMI enhances students’ proficiency in English, which is often considered as an essential asset for global communication, higher education opportunities, and career advancement. There is a rapid global transition from teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) to using English as the medium of instruction (EMI) for academic subjects like science, mathematics, geography, and medicine (Dearden, 2014). Since the 1850s, English has been taught in Nepali schools, often with greater emphasis than Nepali, the national language (Shrestha & Gautam, 2022). Today, English is a compulsory subject from Grade 1 in both community and institutional schools. In 2003, the Ministry of Education revised its policy, making English a compulsory subject from Grade 1 to build a foundation for further studies in and through English (Phyak, 2018). Institutional schools use English as the medium of instruction. Due to the preference for English, many students move to institutional schools, challenging community schools to retain their students (Shrestha, 2018). Consequently, community schools are shifting to EMI from Nepali. English is seen as crucial for communication and employment opportunities in the global market and is included in the curriculum to improve understanding and learning outcomes, especially in subjects like mathematics and science. There is limited research on how national and local EMI policies are interpreted and implemented at the local level. Reflecting upon this context, in this study, I aimed to explore the motives behind EMI in community schools at the local level in Nepal. The research question for this study is what are the underlying motives and driving factors for the adoption of English Medium Instruction (EMI) in community schools at the local level in Nepal?

Methodology

I conducted ethnographic research for six months in one of the local municipalities of Rupandehi, Lumbini Province. I selected four teachers from different schools within the municipality. I chose the one that has extensive experience and active involvement in educational practices. In-depth interviews and informal conversations are the tools to collect data. The interviews were semi-structured and audio-recorded. Informal conversations provided additional insights and were noted in a field diary. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis, where recurring themes and patterns were identified and interpreted. I was culturally sensitive and respectful in the interactions with participants, taking into account the cultural background, beliefs, and values of the participants during the field study. I paid attention to the accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness of data in my study.

Insights and Discussion

Balancing linguistic and cultural diversity with EMI at local levels

The local governments are responsible for determining the policies and practices regarding the use of English as a subject and medium of instruction in local schools. These policies should align with constitutional provisions promoting mother tongues and cultural diversity. While English is important in local schools, its use should be balanced with the promotion of linguistic and cultural diversity. Local governments must ensure that English education policies are effective and equitable, and support inclusive, quality education for all students. One of the participants of the study, participant TP4 focused on the EMI and she claimed:

One can learn more things as a medium than when studying English as a subject. Earlier, English was taught only as a subject in schools. But now, the opportunity to learn English has increased as there are opportunities to learn English through media, mobile, television, etc. (Interview transcript, TP3).

Her priority is on EMI so that students can learn other subjects with English medium books and other materials. Most of the school teachers agreed that educating in English medium can promote learners to be more successful in terms of both their academic and social proportions of life (Panthee, 2020). So, I did not find a similar view regarding English as a medium of instruction or as a subject. It is somehow contradictory in this issue, but all of them agreed with the necessity to learn English either through English as a subject or medium of instruction to face globalization. English as a universal language is taken as a widely used and powerful means of communication between or among people of diverse linguistic backgrounds (Poudel, 2021).

English is increasingly being used as the medium of instruction for academic subjects including physics, mathematics, geography, journalism, law, and medicine, replacing its previous ole as a foreign language (EFL). EMI in school education is growing its popularity across Nepal. The worldwide spread of EMI in education has also influenced the Nepalese school education system (Panthee, 2020). The participants stated several reasons for the adaptation of EMI in schools of the municipality. The first reason for adopting EMI is globalization. Participant TP3 stated:

The number of English medium schools is increasing due to the impact of globalization on the market. We have realized that it is necessary for students to know English to compete in the global market and can make their economic status better than now. It is only possible if they study in an English medium school. (Interview transcript, TP3).

Thus, it argues schools are adopting EMI by accepting English as a global language. Globalization and the English language are pull factors for each other. The English language plays an important role in the progress of globalization. Globalization of occupation and business with different setup values has increased the importance of the English language. English acts as a fountain of wisdom and education. English is a key component for the improvement of a career and means of earning property. English is also taken as a component to bring happiness to family and community and uplift the socio-economic status of the people (Mishra & Bhatt, 2021). So, parents send their children to learn English in the hope that it would reduce their poverty working in the global market. Educating in English medium means having opened the doors to many opportunities at home and abroad. Realizing this truth, the institutional and many community schools of the municipality have been adopting EMI as a novel linguistic market in education in recent years. This trend is increasing due to globalization and the socioeconomic power of the English language, viewing English as a linguistic capital (Bourdieu, 1993). English is taken as the means for economic development, social mobility, and participation in the global economy (Bruthiaux, 2002). The same type of practices found in China as Lei, & Hu, (2014) illustrated that China has been actively promoting EMI from junior secondary school to higher education.

The Motives Behind the Use of EMI at Local Level

EMI helps to develop foreign language skills, enabling students to work in a foreign language environment and become bilingual and multilingual, enhancing their education to respond to globalization, and preparing students for higher studies (Panthee, 2020). In the same way, participant SP1 argued that parents are confident that, the students will become smart, get a job and go abroad after studying in English medium, so the passion for English has increased daily (Interview transcript, TP1). So, there is the belief that if students get exposure to EMI they could develop English proficiency to compete in the global market. EMI is perceived to give students a double benefit: knowledge of their subject, plus the English language, and make them more attractive in the global job market. People believe that English provides a better academic and professional career in a national and international context. Similarly, the public believes their children are inferior if they do not study or educate their children in English Medium schools.

The next reason for EMI in education in Nepal is that English has formed various employment opportunities for people. Many parents enroll their children in institutional schools because English is adopted as a medium of instruction there. In this regard participant, TP4 agreed that it is very difficult to get a job i n the job markets of Nepal and foreign countries without having a better command of English (Interview transcript, TP4). The English language has increased employability by supporting international movements, providing chances for developing opportunities and spreading appropriate information (Khati, 2013). English language skills provide people with employment opportunities at the international level. Another reason for using EMI in education is to study different academic disciplines in Nepal or abroad. English has been used in subjects like science, technology, economics, culture, geography, math, etc. Participant TP2 stated:

Students want to go abroad for higher education. They need to develop proficiency in English. For this students need English medium instruction while studying significant subjects like math, English ICT, etc. It will be easier to study medicine, engineering, pilots, and other technical subjects for further study (Interview transcript, TP2)

This data shows that most students want to go abroad for their higher education. For that students need to study core subjects in English medium. English proficiency is required to enroll in any international university. It is necessary to get a standard score in IELTS, GRE, TOFEL, and PTE and the EMI plays a vital role. Students who have a good command of English language skills can get their higher studies in any university in the world where English is considered as a primary medium of instruction. EMI has benefited students by enhancing their language skills which could be beneficial for their further study.

The motives behind the use of English as a medium of instruction at local-level schools in Nepal are rooted in the desire to improve educational outcomes, access to knowledge, and employment opportunities. However, it is important to balance these goals with the promotion of mother tongues and linguistic and cultural diversity, to ensure that all students have access to inclusive and quality education. Though, the use of English as a medium of instruction can also result in the marginalization of local languages and cultures and can create language barriers for students who do not have a strong foundation in English.

Conclusion and Implications

            The study found that parents, students, and stakeholders perceive English as a universal language and a powerful means of communication. The motivation for implementing the EMI policy in Sainamaina schools is the belief that exposure to English through EMI will develop students’ proficiency, enabling them to compete globally. Stakeholders believe English offers better academic and professional prospects both nationally and internationally. The shift from Nepali Medium Instruction (NMI) to EMI in community schools is driven by parental demand and the desire to prevent student migration to institutional schools. This demonstrates that the adoption of EMI in community schools is driven by several factors, primarily globalization and the perceived economic and academic benefits of English proficiency. This trend has led to an increase in EMI community school enrollments. Community schools are compelled to adopt EMI due to parents’ and students’ attraction to English. The increasing enrollment in EMI community schools necessitates more resources. They need to charge fees which may contravene constitutional provisions and citizens’ rights. The municipality should develop clear policies for EMI and NMI and guide schools in implementing these policies to bridge the gap between policy and practice. Community schools need a comprehensive plan and policy before shifting from NMI to EMI to respect constitutional norms and children’s rights. Local governments need to implement policies that balance the promotion of English with the preservation of linguistic and cultural diversity to ensure inclusive and quality education for all students.

References

Bourdieu, P. (1993). The field of cultural production: Essays on art and literature. Columbia University Press.

Bruthiaux, P. (2002). Predicting challenges to English as a global language in the 21st century. Language problems and language planning, 26(2), 129-157. https://doi.org 10.1075/lplp.26.2.03bru

Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction-a growing global phenomenon. British Council.

Khati, A. R. (2013). Career gains and identity loss: The effects of English in the Nepali hinterlands. Journal of NELTA, 18(1-2), 77-91.

Lei, J., & Hu, G. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 52(2), 99-126. https:// doi 10.1515/iral-2014-0005

Mishra, D.K. & Bhatt, S. (2021, May). English medium instruction in school education: Parents’ perspectives [Blog article). ELT CHOUTARI. Available at: https://eltchoutari.com/2021/04/english-medium-instruction-in-school-education-parents-perspectives/

Nepal Law Commission. (2015).The constitution of Nepal. Government of Nepal.

Panthee, D. (2020). Teachers’ perception of English as medium of instruction in Nepalese Community Schools. KMC Research Journal, 4(4), 55-70 https://doi.org/10.3126/kmcrj.v4i4.46467

Paudel, P. (2021). Using English as a medium of instruction: Challenges and opportunities of multilingual classrooms in Nepal. Prithvi Journal of Research and Innovation, 43-56. https://doi.org/10.3126/pjri.v3i1.37434

Phyak, P. (2018). Translanguaging as a pedagogical resource in English language teaching: A response to unplanned language education policies in Nepal. In International perspectives on teaching English in difficult circumstances (pp. 49-70). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53104-9_3

Shrestha, P., & Gautam, G. R. (2022). English language teaching, learning and assessment in Nepal: Policies and practices in the school education system. https://oro.open.ac.uk/82819/

Shrestha, S. (2018). English education in Nepal: a brief overview. Language Issues: The ESOL Journal, 29(1), 70-71.

Author Bio: Mr Dinesh Panthee is an Assistant Professor at Sahid Narayan Pokharel Ramapur Campus Rupandehi. He has completed an MPhil in English Education from GSE TU. He is currently a PhD scholar in English Education at GSE TU. He is an executive member of NELTA Lumbini Province Nepal. His areas of interest include teacher professional development, educational and social research, language policy and planning, local curriculum, ICT in education, and textbook development.

Background

During my PhD study (2020–2023), I gathered experiences from school stakeholders who have adopted English Medium Instruction (EMI). I focused on two rural community schools, selecting them purposively for the research. I collected information primarily from parents, local-level policymakers, teachers, and students using informal interaction, interviews, and observation to understand their perceptions and experiences with the EMI policy. In this article, I present their views and experiences, providing a comprehensive insight into the impact of EMI in rural settings. Additionally, I reflect on these findings to highlight the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing EMI in rural education systems.

EMI in Parents’ Perspectives

Parents have various perspectives on the use of EMI. While some see EMI as pivotal for their children’s future careers, others believe that it could impede their learning. Among them, a segment views EMI as crucial, arguing that proficiency in English is essential for their children’s success and opportunities. They see English as a fundamental skill that enables global communication, access to higher education, and career advancement. In their view, without strong English speaking skills, children may struggle to keep up with global developments, which could limit their personal and professional growth. These parents advocate for EMI as a vital step in preparing their children for the challenges of a rapidly evolving world, ensuring that they are well-equipped to seize future opportunities.

However, some parents who did not know the importance of English were against it mainly because it was a challenging task for them to help their children in studying at their home. A few of them viewed the EMI classroom as a “mouse trap” for the school children. During an informal interaction, one of the parents explained that stakeholders of the EMI schools use the allure of EMI to attract students and parents, akin to bait in a mouse trap. Once students entered the EMI classroom, they faced difficulties in comprehending the content taught in English, thus feeling trapped and hindered in their learning process. The adoption of EMI is a contentious issue among parents. While some see it as crucial for their children’s future success, others find it problematic due to their inability to provide support at home. Additionally, there is a concern that EMI may not effectively aid learning, instead creating obstacles for students in understanding the material.

Policymakers’ Views on EMI

Policymakers at the local level hold diverse views regarding the implementation of EMI in schools. Political representatives generally support the adoption of EMI, whereas civil servant representatives often express reluctance to implement it in schools. A member from political representative in the local government articulated that EMI serves three primary purposes: “sikau” (ensuring that students learn the content in English), “tikau” (guaranteeing the sustainability of the school), and “bikau” (enhancing the marketability of the students). He emphasized that EMI is designed to facilitate the threefold objective of learning English, sustaining educational institutions, and improving students’ employability in the job market. This group of policymakers strongly advocates the use of EMI at schools and asserts that teachers at the respective levels must be proficient in delivering content in English.

However, the implementation of EMI is not without its challenges. One of the policymakers from an official representative at the local level cautions that uncritical support for EMI in schools may be an “illusion.” He argues that successful implementation of EMI in the existing context is not guaranteed. The policymakers supporting this view warn that, under the appearance of EMI, schools might attract students without having a clear and comprehensive plan for their education. They emphasize that teachers must be mentally prepared to teach content in English and should be provided with adequate support and supplementary teaching materials. Without proper resources and training, the quality of education could suffer, undermining the intended benefits of EMI. Furthermore, there is a risk that schools may prioritize English proficiency over subject mastery, leading to superficial learning outcomes. This highlights the necessity for careful planning, ongoing support, and robust execution strategies to ensure that EMI achieves its educational goals and benefits students holistically.

Teachers’ Experiences With EMI

Teachers at EMI schools have found the use of EMI to be burdensome. In an interview, a Social Studies teacher at the school acknowledged her inability to teach her assigned subject using EMI due to her limited proficiency in English. She stated, “I am not familiar with speaking English, and I struggle with correct pronunciation and word meanings; translating becomes a challenge for me in such situations.” She further expressed, “When I attempt to use English in the classroom, I am overwhelmed by the fear of making mistakes; how can I effectively teach using EMI under such circumstances?” Nearly all teachers encounter circumstances similar to those experienced by the Social Studies teacher in the specific research domain, as they have communicated to me. The insights shared by the teachers underline the substantial challenges that EMI presents for teachers like her, highlighting that EMI has become a significant issue for them.

Due to the challenges associated with teaching content in English, teachers often employ a strategy called memorization in EMI classes. They cover a limited range of topics and supply students with the answers to the questions found in the textbooks. Teachers instruct students to repeatedly read these answers during class and assign the same task as homework. During a classroom observation, one teacher provided the answers to four questions from the exercise section and instructed the students to memorize them during the class period. When the students were unable to memorize the answers, she assigned the task as homework, stating, “You must recite the answers to the questions given to you today; otherwise, I will make you squat and stand with your hands holding your ears fifty times in front of the class.” These circumstances indicate that teachers at EMI schools face significant challenges due to their limited English proficiency, leading to a reliance on memorization strategies in the classroom. This approach results in a limited range of topics being taught and pressurizes students to memorize answers, highlighting the burden and fear experienced by teachers attempting to use EMI.

EMI and Students’ Condition

In the context of Nepalese multilingual classes, students face substantial challenges in EMI classes. Through informal interactions, I gained insights into these difficulties. Following is an example of when I, as a researcher (R), informally communicated with a student (S) of class four. In this communication, I asked the student to read the heading “Rural Municipality” and she read it with difficulty. Then, I conversed with her in the following way:

R: What does ‘Rural Municipality’ mean?

S: I don’t know.

R: Do you know ‘Gaun Palika’

S: Yes, yes, I know. It is beside our school.

The student struggles to understand the term “Rural Municipality” due to the language barrier, as evidenced by their lack of recognition of the English term. However, when the term is translated to “Gaun Palika,” a familiar Nepali term, the student immediately understood and identified its relevance to their local context. While speaking with students and observing their experiences, it was evident that the transition to EMI is particularly strenuous for them. The primary issue stems from the discrepancy between the language of instruction and the student’s language proficiency. Textbooks and examination questions are in English, while teachers often resort to explaining the content in Nepali. This language-switching creates confusion and anxiety among students, as their proficiency in English is not strong enough to grasp complex concepts or understand exam questions accurately. Consequently, students often find themselves at a loss, struggling to bridge the gap between the English medium materials and their limited English skills.

Classroom observations further highlighted these challenges. During teaching and examinations, I noticed that students frequently struggle to comprehend the instructions and intentions behind the questions. Their poor English language proficiency worsens this issue, making it difficult for them to express their understanding and knowledge effectively in written form. While observing the examinations, I found many instances where students eagerly awaited assistance from subject teachers, hoping for clues or explanations in Nepali. This reliance on teachers for translation and clarification highlights the gap between the student’s language abilities and the demands of an EMI curriculum. The situation reveals a critical need for implementation of EMI in the context.

Reflection

The implementation of the EMI policy faces significant challenges within the existing socio-political background of the researched settings. This policy is at odds with the preferences of parents, local education policymakers, teachers, and students alike. Additionally, the lack of suitable instructional materials designed for EMI, combined with the need for improved English language proficiency, impairs the linguistic and pedagogical difficulties encountered by both teachers and students. This situation results in a deficiency in meaningful interaction during teaching and learning activities and thereby hampers the learning of the students. It is noteworthy to understand that the implementation of the EMI policy in community schools will be effective only if the teachers are proficient in both written and spoken English and if students have opportunities to sufficiently develop their English language skills through a bilingual or multilingual approach.

Author Bio: Dr. Tek Mani Karki is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English Education at Mahendra Ratna Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. He earned his PhD in 2023 with a dissertation titled “English as a Medium of Instruction in Community Schools of Nepal: Policies and Practices.” His research interests encompass the medium of instruction policy, social justice, and teacher professional development. Dr. Karki has presented research papers at numerous national and international conferences and has published extensively in these areas.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) is a global phenomenon, expanding rapidly across the world due to the influence of neoliberalism, instrumentalism, and the ideology of English as a global language. In Nepal, EMI has become a widely adopted medium of instruction policy, both in institutional and community schools. Consequently, many resarchers are studying various dimensions of EMI, both globally and in Nepal. In light of this, ELT Choutari has decided to publish a special issue focusing on “EMI Policies and Practices in Nepal” for its third quarterly edition (July-September 2024). This issue features the valuable insights and experiences of four distinguished scholars who have been actively researching and supervising EMI topics from diverse perspectives at universities both in Nepal and abroad. We have invited Associate Professor Dr. Bal Krishna Sharma from the University of Idaho, USA, Prof. Dr. Bal Mukunda Bhandari, Prof. Dr. Tara Datta Bhatta, and Prof. Dr. Binod Luitel from Tribhuvan University to share their thoughts on various dimensions of EMI from a research standpoint. Our Issue Editor, Nani Babu Ghimire had an interview with them. Specifically, Mr. Ghimire has gathered their opinions and views on EMI based on three key questions.

Question: Given the growing number of scholars researching EMI, why do you consider EMI a significant and researchable issue at the moment?

Associate Prof. Dr. Sharma:

Whether you accept it or not, many countries and societies, including Nepal, are increasingly viewing English as a language of globalization, internationalization, transnational mobility, and a symbol of social prestige. However, many of these perceptions are based on myths, as the practical benefits of English proficiency often fall short of expectations. The adoption of EMI, particularly in countries like Nepal, is founded on the mistaken belief that it leads to better job opportunities, higher university rankings, and miraculous improvements in student achievement and educational quality. Nanibabu-ji, your research actually points out the issue to that direction. In reality, you discuss that much of this push for EMI originates from top-down policymaking influenced by stakeholders who may not thoroughly consider research findings. These stakeholders hold the belief that EMI offers specific advantages to universities and students, often driven by financial motives. Nepali parents and students must understand whether EMI genuinely delivers the benefits that policymakers and school administrators claim. Further studies are essential to assess whether EMI genuinely enhances students’ English proficiency. If not, introducing a foreign language can have adverse effects. For instance, imagine a student struggling to understand Nepali history because the instruction is in English, despite Nepal having Nepali and numerous other languages that could effectively facilitate learning. Even if instruction in every language is impractical, utilizing multiple languages can enrich content learning.

Prof. Dr. Bhandari:

Many non-English speaking countries have been providing education in English to attract foreign students… EMI is the main concern of academic subjects like Science and Mathematics or Finance and Economics; however, the English language teaching professionals and researchers are found more interested into this issue. When the modern schooling started in Nepal, the English language has been a part of education system either as a subject or the medium of instruction. Private schools have always preferred EMI and marked themselves different from other schooling systems in Nepal.

EMI was adopted along with the global spread of English in many countries of the world; however, it has been in discussion in the recent decades. In the context of Nepal, only after the government/ community schools started to switch themselves into English medium schools or they opened a wing as English medium, voices in support or against EMI have been raised. These voices about EMI have made this issue researchable.

Prof. Dr. Bhatta:

English Medium Instruction (EMI) has significantly drawn the attention among scholars and policymakers in Nepal due to its multifaceted and multi-dimensional impact on education and society. Research on EMI is thus crucial as it helps assess the alignment of Nepal’s educational policies with global standards and measures the effectiveness of EMI in equipping students with the necessary skills for global engagement.

In the same vein, the adoption of EMI in Nepal is influenced by complex socio-cultural factors. Historically, English has been associated with prestige and socio-economic advancement, a legacy of colonial education systems. Parents and students in Nepal often view EMI as a pathway to improved educational outcomes and enhanced career prospects. This perception is supported by the belief that proficiency in English—language capital—can open doors to better job opportunities and social mobility. Research into these motivations provides valuable insights into the socio-cultural drivers of EMI adoption and highlights the need to address both the perceived benefits and the potential drawbacks of this instructional approach.

Nepal’s rich linguistic diversity poses significant challenges for the implementation of EMI. With over 126 languages spoken across the country, the practicalities of delivering instruction in English while accommodating multiple native languages are complex in the heterogeneous classroom contexts. Research should focus on how EMI can be effectively implemented without undermining Nepal’s linguistic and cultural heritage. This involves exploring models that support bilingual or multilingual education and ensure that local languages are preserved alongside the promotion of English proficiency.

Educational equity is a critical concern in the context of EMI. While EMI aims to provide students with valuable English language skills, it may unintentionally worsen existing educational inequalities. Students from affluent backgrounds often have better access to high-quality EMI programmes and resources, whereas those from disadvantaged backgrounds may face significant barriers. Research into the impact of EMI on educational equity is essential for developing policies and practices that ensure fair access to quality education for all students. This includes investigating the effectiveness of targeted support mechanisms for students from lower socio-economic backgrounds and evaluating the role of government and institutional policies in promoting educational equity.

The integration of EMI into Nepal’s education system raises important questions about balancing globalization with the preservation of cultural identities. While EMI offers opportunities for global engagement and economic advancement, it also risks overshadowing local languages and traditions. Research should explore strategies for implementing EMI in a way that respects and integrates Nepal’s cultural and linguistic diversity. This involves developing educational models that allow students to benefit from global competencies while also valuing and preserving their cultural heritage.

In this sense, EMI has been emerging as a significant and researchable issue in the present era and considerable number of scholars from various universities of Nepal have been persuading their research on EMI.

 Prof. Dr. Luitel:

In the contemporary scenario, as we know, there has been the craze for English considering its role as the international ‘lingua franca’. This is the language most widely being employed in association with international business, diplomacy, scientific-technological innovations, and various sorts of communicative exchanges from one corner to other corners of the globe – that can include social, cultural, and academic concerns.

In this context, academic institutions offering education from the lower to the higher levels are attracted towards employing English for running educational programmes; and people are also tempted towards educating their children through English – with the strong conviction that enabling their children to effectively communicate the contents in this language is the most fundamental criterion for their success. Despite the pedagogical reality that educating the children through mother tongue in the beginning years of schooling becomes the most effective way of their learning, schools have offered teaching-learning materials and organized the curricular and extra-curricular activities through English.

Basically, the issue of adopting EMI in the schools of Nepal should be considered from two angles: English medium at the level of formal requirements; and English medium at the level of classroom proceedings. When a school adopts English medium in using the textbooks and conducts examinations through English, the case is the use of EMI as part of formal requirements. Regarding EMI at the level of pedagogical practices, it should be implemented in the classroom proceedings when the teachers and students adopt it as if they are ‘immersed’ into English, without necessarily depending on the students’ native language or any other language.

EMI research, in the context of Nepal in particular, should be considered a very important field of exploration from these perspectives. It is essential to explore, how far English has been adopted as the medium of instruction at both the levels just mentioned – i.e. whether it is practiced at the level of using English medium textbooks and conducting the exams through English, or at the level of ‘immersed’ classroom pedagogy as well. In addition, there is also the need for researching the level of intellectual knowledge and insights gained by the younger children educated through EMI in comparison to those who have been educated through mother tongue or the national lingua franca (Nepali). Moreover, several issues related to parents’ perceptions, teachers’ competence, curricular materials are important for exploring the implementation of EMI in the context of Nepal.

Question: Based on your experiences, what aspects of EMI have recently been explored by novice scholars in Nepal?

Associate Prof. Dr. Sharma:

I find it challenging to pinpoint research outputs from novice scholars for several reasons. It’s known that novice scholars often collaborate with more senior researchers throughout the research process, writing, and publication phases. Both you and I have done this in various degrees and these outcomes from our colleagues and us have appeared in diverse formats such as journals (e.g., Journal of English Medium Instruction), edited volumes, handbooks, and region-specific publications. From my understanding, several areas have gained prominence within the EMI sub-field: EMI and higher education, EMI and translanguaging, and EMI and social justice, to name just a few. In higher education and EMI, researchers are exploring pedagogical practices to identify effective teaching strategies, methodologies, and assessment practices that balance content learning with language proficiency. Moreover, there is a growing interest in studying student outcomes to understand how EMI impacts academic performance, linguistic challenges, and long-term professional trajectories. Also, translanguaging, which involves the dynamic use of multiple languages by bilingual or multilingual speakers, provides a valuable framework for understanding EMI practices. By acknowledging learners’ entire linguistic repertoire, translanguaging is believed to promote a holistic approach to language learning. This allows students in EMI settings to use their native languages to understand and engage with content more deeply. Furthermore, researchers and practitioners both believe that translanguaging validates students’ cultural identities by boosting their confidence and motivation (Phyak et al., 2022; Sah & Li, 2022). There is a need for further exploration on how to effectively integrate this aspect into EMI frameworks. Finally, some research has raised concerns about social justice and inequalities stemming from EMI programs, particularly in multilingual societies like ours (Sah & Karki, 2020). There has been significant progress in critical applied linguistics through the works of scholars such as Suresh Canagarajah, Ryuko Kubota, Alaistair Pennycook, and others, who emphasize that language serves as a political tool influencing social identities and language ideologies—critical elements in language education and EMI today. Therefore, it is essential to continue examining the broader impacts of EMI on societies and individuals, particularly those on the margins (e.g., Indigenous language speakers, working-class people). Evidence indicates that EMI may be fostering or exacerbating educational and social elitism, a significant concern highlighted in research by Pramod Sah and also observed across various cultural contexts, including China, South Korea, and Hong Kong. It is important to acknowledge that if English becomes an additional barrier preventing students from accessing educational opportunities, it poses a serious issue that requires urgent attention. While not entirely avoidable, understanding and addressing these issues is essential to ensure that EMI contributes positively to educational equity and social inclusivity.

Prof. Dr. Bhandari:

EMI is a hot topic of research at present in Nepal. Though we find this topic in the reports, dissertations, and journal articles, it is yet to be understood from different facets. The researchers have so far tried to explore the policies and practices of EMI in the government schools from the stakeholders’ opinions who may not have sufficient understanding of it (Karki, 2023). On the other hand, I am not aware of any research in which an EMI teacher has been directly involved. The research with the already designed framework with limited informants may not bring the ground reality which can only capture the tip of the ice.

The findings so far have explained that EMI is the demand of the society, parents, and students therefore it is important and necessary (Ghimire, 2019; Phyak, 2016; Sah & Karki, 2020). They have also explored the challenges such as training teachers to teach in English, proper management from the side of the schools and extra financial burden for the parents.

Prof. Dr. Bhatta:

As I have above said, considerable number of scholars from various universities of Nepal have been persuading their studies on EMI. Most of the research they have made have highlighted the importance of teacher proficiency in EMI settings (Ojha, 2018). Many studies have identified gaps in teachers’ language skills and pedagogical practices, revealing that inadequate training can hinder the effectiveness of EMI. In this regard, novice scholars have explored how current professional development programmes address these challenges and proposed improvements to better equip teachers for EMI environments (Khatri, 2019).

Another area of research on EMI made by the research is the understanding the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders—teachers, parents, students, and policymakers. Recent research has explored how these groups view EMI and their reasons for supporting or opposing it. Findings often indicate that while many stakeholders recognize the benefits of EMI for English language acquisition, there are concerns about its potential negative effects on students’ understanding of other subjects and cultural identity (Phyak & Sharma, 2020). Investigating these perceptions helps to identify areas of consensus and conflict, informing strategies for addressing stakeholder concerns and improving EMI implementation.

Similarly, the impact of EMI on student learning outcomes is a significant focus of recent research. Studies have investigated whether EMI improves English language skills and overall academic performance (Dearden, 2014). Results are mixed, with some students benefiting from EMI while others face challenges due to language barriers. This highlights the need for additional support mechanisms, such as remedial classes and differentiated instruction, to ensure that all students can thrive in EMI settings. Research in this area helps to identify best practices and interventions that can enhance the effectiveness of EMI and support diverse learning needs.

Moreover, recent research has examined how socioeconomic and linguistic factors affect students’ experiences with EMI. Studies have shown that students from lower socio-economic backgrounds and those with limited English proficiency may struggle more in EMI settings. This highlights the need for inclusive policies and practices that address these barriers and promote equitable access to EMI. Research should focus on identifying strategies to support students from disadvantaged backgrounds and ensure that EMI serves as a tool for educational equity rather than perpetuating existing inequalities.

The development of curricula and instructional materials for EMI has been another area of exploration. Scholars have investigated how to design curricula that effectively integrate English language learning with subject content. This includes evaluating the quality and relevance of textbooks and digital resources used in EMI settings. Research in this area advocates for curricula that are not only effective in teaching English but also culturally responsive and contextually appropriate for Nepal’s diverse student population.

The role of technology in enhancing EMI has been explored to assess how digital tools can support language learning and instructional practices. Research has examined the use of online platforms, language learning apps, and other technological resources in EMI settings. Many scholars have been working on EMI for their MPhil or PhD dissertations.

Prof. Dr. Luitel:

One of the issues picked up by the scholars for exploration in this regard is related to the parents’ temptation towards EMI and the social perception towards it (Ghimire, 2024). In the context of a developing country like Nepal, social perception towards EMI has been associated with ‘prestige’ to some extent. Accordingly, teachers teaching in schools through English medium are regarded with higher prestige compared to others who do not use EMI. Thus, EMI in relation to teachers’ and students’ social identify has been the matter of exploration to some extent.

Practically speaking, in the context of community schools, there are the cases of adopting EMI as well as abandoning EMI due to various reasons; and researchers’ interest in identifying the factors associated with these opposing cases have also been the concerns for exploration in Nepal. From such explorations, it is identified that schools are tempted to adopt EMI to address the demand of parents and for their own institutional sustenance; and they tend to abandon EMI if the teaching staffs cannot handle it due to the lack of competence and confidence required for instructional delivery through English.

Equally, there is also the interest among scholars regarding the use of students’ home language or the national language (Nepali) while teaching English. One of the realities in the context of second language teaching-learning is that the learner comes to learn this language with some already pre-occupied language which s/he deploys in the course of learning anything new. This psychological reality has several dimensions that need to be explored furthermore.

Question: Reflecting on your own practice and engagement in EMI research, which areas of EMI do you believe need further exploration in the future?

Associate Prof. Dr. Sharma:

I am still learning more about this topic, but based on my review so far, I identify three primary areas that need more attention in EMI research now and in the future. First, EMI and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) have been largely treated as distinct areas of research until today; however, they share overlapping goals and principles. EMI focuses on teaching academic subjects in English in contexts where English is not the first language, primarily aiming to enhance students’ language proficiency and academic success in English. CLIL, on the other hand, integrates content and language learning simultaneously; it emphasizes both subject mastery and language acquisition through a dual-focused approach. Despite their different origins and emphases, both EMI and CLIL seek to improve students’ academic outcomes and language skills. I strongly believe that integrating findings from both fields or having researchers from these seemingly different lines of research collaborate could be beneficial. Insights from CLIL’s methodologies on balancing language and content objectives can inform EMI practices; this can ensure that students not only learn the subject matter but also develop their English proficiency effectively. Conversely, research from EMI can provide CLIL practitioners with strategies for addressing academic language needs. This integration has the potential to enhance pedagogical practices and improve student outcomes, especially in contexts like ours where there is a growing emphasis on developing English abilities alongside content knowledge. At the same time, I believe it is crucial to collaborate with content area teachers and researchers; to my knowledge, very few studies involve partnerships with subject specialists and practitioners; this is the case not only in Nepal, but globally,

Second, I have read more about EMI research in the Nepali context, which repeatedly points out that “teachers are not well-trained to teach content subjects in English,” as highlighted by our own wonderful researchers including Prem Phyak (and myself), Pramod Sah, Jeevan Karki, Nani Babu Ghimire, Tek Mani Karki, Mohan Singh Saud and others. Future research should examine in more detail the design and implementation of teacher preparation and professional development programs, which are crucial for ensuring effective educational outcomes. There are hardly any formal programs that support our teachers at the grassroots level. It is essential to move beyond basic training and ask what types of professional development programs are most effective in bringing about meaningful changes in teaching practices. Effective programs should address not only language proficiency but also pedagogical skills to effectively teach content. Researchers can collaborate with practitioners and curriculum developers to offer ongoing support, such as mentorship and reflective teacher development, to help them refine their practices. In this sense, researchers have more responsibility than simply “understanding” the EMI phenomenon; because they often come with knowledge of best practices from other contexts, they can effectively work with teachers to localize effective EMI practices and strategies. Perhaps you could be an example for this through your doctoral research and participation in teacher development programs.

Finally, the integration of technology and artificial intelligence (AI) in EMI could be another potential area of exploration. It’s proven that technology can provide innovative tools and platforms that support both teaching and learning in EMI contexts, with an emphasis on language and content. For instance, AI-driven language learning applications can offer personalized language practice, instant feedback, and adaptive learning paths tailored to individual student needs. Students and teachers can utilize this dimension for content learning as well. I understand that the digital divide between the poor and rich is wide in Nepal, but in contexts where technology is already integrated into education, practitioners can bridge these interfaces.

My best hope is that greater research and policy focus will be directed towards the thousands of children compelled to learn in English from their first year of primary school, as we see in Nepal and in many other world contexts. For me, there remains a pressing need for a detailed understanding of how English-medium instruction affects these children’s language identity, their access to content and the curriculum, and their overall literacy and language development across all languages.

Prof. Dr. Bhandari:

Seeing private schools performing better in the school level tests such as SEE, and also higher education, the parents and other stakeholders understood English as the instrument for better/standard education. They have not explored other aspects of EMI management. In addition to the medium, there are several determining factors that play crucial roles for imparting quality education. Most of the researchers have come up with the findings that in the name of EMI, English medium books are used but the classroom delivery is not in English, and the school environment is the same whatever the medium is (Ghimire, 2019; Gim, 2020). The studies have also reported that many community schools were not successful to run English medium education, and thus turning back to Nepali medium. The notion of successful education has to be properly defined, and it should be seen in the real life of the graduates. Despite the challenges, EMI has many implications which should/could be the area of research. Furthermore, the practice of language policy and planning in other countries may help manage EMI in Nepal.

Prof. Dr. Bhatta:

As it is an emerging area of study as well as the interest of many people, there are lots of areas for further exploration in the future.

One of them includes longitudinal studies to assess the long-term effects of EMI on students’ educational and career outcomes. While current research often focuses on immediate impacts, understanding how EMI influences students’ academic achievements and professional trajectories over time is crucial. Longitudinal studies can provide valuable insights into the sustained benefits and challenges of EMI, helping educators and policymakers develop strategies that support students throughout their academic and professional careers.

Another research is needed to explore how EMI affects cognitive development. While some studies  suggest that bilingualism associated with EMI can enhance cognitive skills, there are concerns about cognitive overload, particularly for younger students (Phyak et al., 2022). Investigating how EMI impacts cognitive processes such as problem-solving, memory, and attention can provide a deeper understanding of its effects on cognitive development and inform instructional practices that optimize learning outcomes.

Similarly, the impact of EMI on teachers’ professional identities and roles warrants further exploration. Teachers in EMI settings often face unique challenges in balancing language instruction with content delivery. Research should examine how EMI affects teachers’ perceptions of their roles, job satisfaction, and instructional practices. Understanding these dynamics can provide insights into the support and professional development needed to enhance teachers’ effectiveness and well-being in EMI contexts.

Given Nepal’s linguistic diversity, exploring how EMI intersects with multilingual education policies is essential. Research should investigate how EMI can be integrated into frameworks that support multilingualism, allowing students to develop proficiency in English while also valuing their native languages and other national languages. This includes examining models of bilingual or trilingual education that balance global competencies with local linguistic and cultural identities.

The socio-cultural implications of EMI on students and communities need further exploration. Research should investigate how EMI influences social cohesion, cultural values, and identity formation. Understanding how EMI affects students’ perceptions of their cultural heritage and social interactions within their communities can guide the development of policies that respect and celebrate Nepal’s cultural diversity while promoting global competencies.

Future research should focus on innovative pedagogical practices that enhance EMI effectiveness. This includes exploring instructional strategies, assessment methods, and classroom management techniques tailored to EMI settings. Research should identify best practices that promote active learning, critical thinking, and student engagement. This involves investigating the role of technology, collaborative learning, and culturally responsive teaching methods in improving EMI outcomes.

Prof. Dr. Luitel:

In the contemporary context when EMI schools are ‘mushrooming’ in the country, there are a few issues and concerns that deserve attention in research. One of them is related to the compatibility of EMI with the institutional capability in terms of teachers’ competence to handle it in particular (Ghimire, 2021; Karki, 2018; Ojha, 2018; Poudel, 2019). Similarly, the matter of linguistic complexity and content related qualities of the input offered in the materials (textbooks) is of prime importance for exploration.

Most importantly, I have noted the issue of developing our students’ linguistic capability and communicative competence as per the national development needs. In this regard, the crucial matter is related to how far we are preparing the students to serve the purpose of transferring the knowledge and insights from English to Nepali and vice-versa. We need the future citizens who can grasp the world knowledge through English and communicate it into Nepali for national benefit as well as ones who can effectively describe and disseminate the contents gathered or generated in Nepali to the world for making the country well-known to the rest parts of the globe. In doing the jobs in both ways, we need the committed citizens who can work for national interest.

In this connection, promotion of bilingual education is highly important; and in EMI research, the researchers should be concerned more about how far the policies and practices of EMI have been (or can be) instrumental towards promoting bilingual competence among the students in the schools of Nepal. This concern is related to the issue of learners’ competence in L1-L2 (Nepali-English) bridging – which has been my area of interest in research and innovations in the field of language pedagogy.

References 

Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction – a growing global phenomenon. British Council. https://tinyurl.com/2vx3v6ds

Ghimire, K. P. (2024). Perceptions on English as a Medium of Instruction in Community School in Nepal. KMC Journal, 6(1), 176–191. https://doi.org/10.3126/kmcj.v6i1.62339

Ghimire, N. B. (2019). English as a medium of instruction: Students’ discernment in Nepal. Education and Development, 29, 146–160.

Ghimire, N. B. (2021). Teacher identity in English medium instruction schools of Nepal. Journal of NELTA Gandaki, 4(1-2), 42–56.

Gim, S. J. (2020). Nepali teacher identity and English medium education: The impact of the shift to English as the medium of instruction at Nepali public schools on teacher identity (Publication No. 28257970) [Doctoral dissertation, Biola University]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Karki, J. (2018). Is English medium instruction working? A case study of Nepalese community schools in Mt. Everest Region. In D. Hayes (Ed.), English language teaching in Nepal: Research, reflection and practice (pp. 201–218). British Council. https://tinyurl.com/2ppw3972

Karki, T. M. (2023). English as a medium of instruction in community schools of Nepal: Policies and practices [Unpublished docotral dissertation]. Tribhuvan University, Faculty of Education, Kathmandu.

Khatri, K. K. (2019). Teachers’ attitudes towards English as medium of instruction. Journal of NELTA Gandaki, 2, 43–54. https://doi.org/10.3126/jong.v2i0.26602

Ojha, L. P. (2018). Shifting the medium of instruction to English in community schools: Policies, practices and challenges in Nepal. In D. Hayes (Ed.), English language teaching in Nepal: Research, reflection and practice (pp. 187–200). British Council. https://tinyurl.com/2ppw3972

Phyak, P. B. (2016). ‘For our cho: Tlung’: Decolonizing language ideologies and (re) imagining multilingual education policies and practices Nepal (Publication No. 10587361) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaii]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Phyak, P. B., Sah, P. K., Ghimire, N. B., & Lama, A. (2022). Teacher agency in creating a translingual space in Nepal’s multilingual English-medium schools. RELC Journal, 53(2), 431–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882221113950

Phyak, P. B., & Sharma, B. K. (2020). Functionality of English in language education policies and practices in Nepal. In R. A. Giri, A. Sharma, & J. D’Angelo (Eds.), Functional variations in English (pp. 321–335). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52225-4_21

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Sah, P. K., & Li, G. (2022). Translanguaging or unequal languaging? Unfolding the plurilingual discourse of English medium instruction policy in Nepal’s public schools. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(6), 2075–2094.