Introduction
The multilingual landscape of Nepal, where 129 languages are spoken among 142 ethnic groups, presents unique challenges and opportunities for integrating mother tongue (MT) into English as a foreign language (EFL) education (National Statistics Office, 2021; Paudel, 2024; Sharma, Banjade, et al., 2024). The role of learners’ MT in EFL classrooms has been extensively debated, especially in multilingual contexts like Nepal. While some argue that the exclusive use of English facilitates immersion and better language acquisition (Krashen, 1982), others contend that the strategic use of MT enhances comprehension and supports learners’ affective needs (Cook, 2001). In multilingual countries such as Nepal, the incorporation of students’ MT in EFL classrooms has been shown to mediate cognitive, affective, and interactional aspects of learning, promoting better engagement and contextualized understanding (Phyak, 2016; Sharma, 2023). Furthermore, MT use helps bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, ensuring that students feel more connected to the learning process (Fillmore, 2020). However, challenges such as a lack of teacher training in MT integration and the dominance of English in assessment systems continue to pose significant barriers (Phyak & Ojha, 2019). While policies like the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) aim to promote linguistic equity and inclusion, the practical implementation often deviates due to societal ideologies, institutional pressures, and logistical challenges (Fillmore & Paudel, 2022; Sharma, 2023).
Given these challenges, promoting a pedagogical approach that values linguistic and cultural diversity seems to be essential. Incorporating students’ MT in EFL classrooms serves as a means to not only enhance language learning but also address deeper issues of equity and representation. By utilizing learners’ MT, educators can create a more inclusive and culturally sensitive learning environment, ensuring that cognitive, affective, and interactional aspects of learning are effectively supported. This approach aligns with efforts to challenge the dominance of monolingual ideologies and create classrooms that respect and celebrate Nepal’s rich multilingual heritage.
Although Nepal’s multilingual context and policies like MTB-MLE emphasize linguistic equity, significant gaps remain in understanding the integration of students’ MT in EFL classrooms. Research often highlights the benefits of MT in enhancing comprehension and engagement, yet practical challenges such as inadequate teacher training, societal ideologies, and logistical constraints hinder its implementation. Additionally, little attention has been given to students’ perspectives on MT use, its role in fostering interactional dynamics, and its broader implications for equity and representation, particularly for marginalized linguistic groups.
This article addresses these gaps by examining theoretical perspectives, teachers’ beliefs and practices, practical challenges, and pedagogical implications related to the use of MT in EFL classrooms. It aims to offer insights into how integrating MT can foster culturally sensitive and effective language education.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Use of MT in EFL Classes
Sharma (2018) and Sharma (2019a) emphasize the theoretical grounding of MT use in education in general and English education in particular, drawing on perspectives like Cummins’ (1981) interdependence hypothesis, which posits that proficiency in the first language facilitates the acquisition of a second language. Cummins argues that a strong foundation in the first language enables cognitive transfer to second language, fostering deeper understanding and linguistic competence.
Paudel (2024) complements this view, highlighting the role of the students’ MT in fostering linguistic human rights and social justice, particularly in contexts where linguistic minorities face systemic marginalization. Both scholars align with Ruiz’s (1984) language-as-resource orientation, advocating for the MT as a tool to bridge linguistic and educational gaps.
Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices Regarding the Use of MT
Teachers’ beliefs and institutional policies significantly influence the use of students’ mother tongue (MT) in Nepalese EFL classrooms. Sharma (2021) and Sharma (2023) explore the complex interplay of teachers’ beliefs and institutional policies in shaping the use of students’ MT in EFL classrooms. Many teachers in Nepalese EFL contexts recognize the pedagogical benefits of the MT (Sharma, 2021), but often hesitate to use it due to institutional mandates favoring English or societal biases equating English with quality education (Paudel, 2024).
These findings resonate with international research. For instance, Ofelia García and Wei (2014) argue that teachers’ reluctance to embrace students’ MT often stems from misconceptions about bilingualism as a hindrance to academic achievement. In contrast, translanguaging practices demonstrate that bilingual students can use their full linguistic repertoire to enhance learning outcomes (Ofelia García & Wei, 2014).
Sharma (2023) provides examples of teachers employing bilingual explanations and culturally relevant examples to scaffold student learning, despite institutional resistance. This aligns with Hornberger’s (2004) concept of continua of biliteracy, which emphasizes the dynamic interplay of languages in education and the importance of recognizing students’ linguistic resources.
Challenges in Implementing MT in Nepalese EFL Classrooms
Despite its theoretical and practical advantages, integrating students’ MT in Nepalese EFL classrooms faces significant challenges. Nepal’s MTB-MLE policy, though progressive in supporting the use of students’ mother tongues in early education, faces significant challenges in implementation. Lack of qualified teachers who are proficient in both the mother tongues and the official languages used in education, lack of instructional materials in local languages, and the societal attitude that views Nepali and English as the only languages that offer socio-economic mobility lead to resistance against MTB-MLE programs (Sharma, Karki, et al., 2024). This aligns with Paudel’s (2024) argument that weak governance structures, limited resources, and ideological conflicts undermine the MTB-MLE policy’s effectiveness. Moreover, the growing dominance of English-medium instruction (EMI), particularly in private schools, has further marginalized MTB-MLE initiatives. This shift is often fueled by parental aspirations and societal perceptions that view English proficiency as a key to accessing global opportunities and economic advancement (Khati, 2016; Paudel, 2024; Sharma, Karki, et al., 2024). Reforms should focus on raising awareness about the cognitive, cultural, and academic benefits of MTB-MLE, particularly by highlighting how mother-tongue education can enhance academic performance.
The linguistic diversity of Nepalese classrooms poses additional challenges to the successful adoption of MTB-MLE. With students from varied linguistic backgrounds, identifying a single mother tongue for instruction often proves impractical. Consequently, teachers tend to rely on Nepali or English as common languages of instruction, unintentionally sidelining students’ actual home languages (Paudel, 2024; Sharma, 2022a). This practice not only diminishes the educational value of mother tongue instruction but also isolates students from their cultural and linguistic identities.
Compounding these challenges is the pervasive societal ideology that promotes English over local languages. Rooted in neoliberal ideologies, English is often seen as a global commodity and a symbol of socio-economic mobility (Holborow, 2007). This perspective creates resistance to the integration of mother tongues into educational systems, as parents and school administrators prioritize English for its perceived ability to secure better future prospects for students (Paudel, 2024). These intertwined issues highlight the complexities of implementing MTB-MLE in Nepal’s linguistically and ideologically diverse landscape.
Translanguaging: A Transformative Approach
Translanguaging serves as a transformative approach to teaching, enabling students to draw on their full linguistic abilities for deeper understanding and meaningful communication. Sharma (2022b) and Paudel (2024) advocate for translanguaging as a transformative practice that challenges monolingual pedagogies. Translanguaging utilizes students’ linguistic repertoires, allowing them to use their MTs alongside English for comprehension and expression. This practice aligns with García’s (2009) definition of translanguaging as a fluid, dynamic process of language use that promotes cognitive and social engagement.
In Nepalese classrooms, translanguaging has shown promise in bridging content knowledge and addressing linguistic inequities. For instance, Sharma (2022b) presents cases where teachers used translanguaging to explain complex grammar rules, enabling students to grasp concepts more effectively. Paudel (2024) highlights its potential to validate students’ cultural identities, fostering a more inclusive and empowering educational environment.
Practical Implications for Policy and Pedagogy
Targeted teacher training is essential for equipping educators with the skills to integrate MT and translanguaging practices into culturally responsive and inclusive pedagogy. In connection with the potential benefits of using students’ MT in education, scholars like Sharma (2019b, 2023) and Paudel (2024) emphasize the importance of targeted teacher training. Additionally, Creese and Blackledge (2010) argue that translanguaging practices are essential in promoting multilingualism and enhancing the educational experience for diverse learners. Educators should be equipped with skills to integrate MT and translanguaging practices into their pedagogy. Such programs, particularly those emphasizing culturally responsive teaching, can enhance teachers’ confidence and competence, ensuring they are prepared to create inclusive and effective learning environments.
Policy reforms also play a crucial role. It is vital for policy documents to explicitly legitimize MT as a pedagogical resource, aligning with Nepal’s constitutional provisions for inclusive education as outlined in The constitution of Nepal (2015). These reforms can bridge the gap between legal frameworks and practical classroom applications, fostering a more equitable education system that values linguistic diversity.
Community engagement is another essential dimension. Raising awareness among parents and local communities about the cognitive and social advantages of MT education can help shift societal attitudes. Campaigns that highlight success stories from bilingual or multilingual education contexts may help counter biases against MT use, promoting broader acceptance and support for such initiatives.
Finally, research and advocacy are indispensable for sustainable progress. Further studies on the impact of using MT in EFL education on academic outcomes can provide evidence-based insights to inform policy and pedagogical decisions. Simultaneously, advocacy efforts should aim to bridge the gap between the intent of MT policies and their implementation in classrooms, ensuring that the envisioned benefits of MT education are realized in practice.
Conclusion
The themes discussed above demonstrate the potential of using students’ MT in Nepalese EFL classrooms, supported by theories like Cummins’ (1979) interdependence hypothesis. MT enhances language acquisition and fosters social justice. However, challenges such as teachers’ beliefs, institutional policies, and societal biases favoring English hinder its implementation. Translanguaging offers a promising solution by utilizing students’ full linguistic repertoires to improve comprehension and validate cultural identities. To effectively integrate MT, targeted teacher training, policy reforms, and community engagement are essential, ensuring a more inclusive and equitable educational system that values linguistic diversity.
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Author’s Bio: Dr. Uma Nath Sharma serves as a lecturer in English Education in Mahendra Ratna Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. He holds an MA in English Literature, an MA in Linguistics, an MEd in English, and a PhD in English Education. In addition to teaching English, Dr. Sharma is passionate about mentoring and providing training to research scholars in academic writing.
